Stine Nygård

• Nygård, Stine; Prenevost, Mathilde H.; Ekre, Maria; Kromann, Sofie Boye & Thornberg, Robert (2025). Bystander role orientations in image-based sexual abuse: Initial steps in developing and operationalizing the concept. Computers in Human Behavior Reports. 20. doi: 10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100835. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research on victims and perpetrators of image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) has demonstrated that bystanders play a key role in the causes and consequences of intimate image dissemination. Yet, few concentrated efforts have been made to conceptualize and shed light on the behaviors and cognitions of this group. Drawing on the participant role approach to school bullying, this study describes the development and psychometric assessment of a multidimensional instrument designed to measure young people's self-predictions of how they will respond to IBSA incidents. Using data from a sample of 814 Norwegian adolescents (ages 16–20 years), we investigate the underlying factor structure, internal consistency, measurement invariance, and construct validity of the instrument. The resulting 16-item Responses to Image-Based Sexual Abuse (ReIBSA) scale consists of four internally consistent dimensions—supporter, objector, insider and moralist responses to intimate image dissemination—that are invariant across groups based on gender, sexual orientation, and lifetime experience with IBSA. Our findings also lend support to the convergent, known-groups, and incremental validity of the scale. In summary, the ReIBSA scale appears to be a promising tool for conceptualizing and measuring bystander responses to IBSA.

• Nygård, Stine; Nysæter, Maren Kristin; Ferreira, Ligia Ribeiro; Frøyland, Lars Roar & Kvalem, Ingela Lundin (2025). Identifying Drivers of Nonconsensual Intimate Image Sharing: A Mixed-Methods Synthesis of Perpetrator Research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. ISSN 1524-8380. doi: 10.1177/15248380251375912. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Echoing the many and serious consequences of nonconsensual sharing of intimate images (NCSII), calls for preventive measures have reverberated across public, legal, and academic discourses. However, at present, empirical insights that could aid the development of perpetrator-focused interventions remain fragmented. Responding to this predicament, we carried out a mixed-methods research synthesis through which we aimed to identify and distill all extant research on the psychosocial mechanisms of NCSII, focusing in particular on perpetrator motives and characteristics, as well as the social dynamics of NCSII incidents. A systematic search across six databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PsycInfo, PubPsych, PubMed, and ERIC) yielded 10,324 unique records, of which 68 peer-reviewed articles were deemed eligible following screening and full-text evaluation. Findings from quantitative ( n  = 55) and qualitative ( n  = 13) studies were synthesized separately and later integrated in an overarching discussion. Through this juxtaposition, we found that NCSII appears to primarily transpire as a form of homosocial bonding, initiated by individuals who tend to have more experiences with intimate sharing practices than non-perpetrators, and whose actions are situated in a wider social context of hegemonic masculinity, female sexual objectification, and sexism. Notably, although gender was not found to be a reliable predictor of perpetration, our synthesis indicates that the social dynamics of NCSII differ for boys/men and girls/women, underscoring the need for gender-sensitive approaches in both research and prevention.

• Nygård, Stine; Træen, Bente & Kvalem, Ingela Lundin (2024). “It Spread Like Wildfire, as These Things Do”: Exploring Mechanisms of Harm in Young Norwegians’ Experiences of Image-Based Sexual Abuse. Journal of Sex Research. ISSN 0022-4499. 17, p. 1–18. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2024.2341129. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  It is widely reported that image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) victimization is linked to a wide range of detrimental outcomes, including anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation. However, knowledge about what shapes victims’ experiences remains limited. To explore underlying mechanisms of harm in IBSA incidents, the present study drew on the concept of appraisal to elucidate the various meanings that victims attach to IBSA. For this purpose, we carried out a reflexive thematic analysis of 20 individual in-depth interviews with young male and female victims (ages 16–26) of IBSA. Using this approach, we developed four overarching themes that capture participants’ experiences of being (1) robbed of bodily autonomy, (2) stripped of privacy, (3) subjected to public scrutiny, and (4) trapped in a state of uncertainty. By delineating the different ways that participants appraised and experienced each of these “layers of victimization,” our findings show how the harms of IBSA may be shaped by a complex constellation of situational, personal, and cultural structures and conditions. Importantly, as some of these mechanisms are socially constructed, our findings indicate that efforts aimed at reducing negative outcomes of IBSA should address the interpersonal and cultural context of these incidents, including bystander responses to intimate image dissemination.

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• Evje, Jacob; Nysæter, Maren Kristin; Nygård, Stine; Ivanova, Anna; Bjaalid, Emily & Fluit, Sam [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2024). LGBTQ+ health-seeking: A scoping review of health care needs, experiences and barriers. Full text in Research Archive
• Ivanova, Anna & Nygård, Stine (2024). Validating a Gender-Neutral Version of Female Genital Self-Image Scale in the Norwegian Population: Preliminary findings from a Pilot Study. Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine; Ivanova, Anna & Fischer, Nantje (2024). Er ufrivillig singelhet egentlig et mannsproblem? Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine; Mehr, Melina & Kvalem, Ingela Lundin (2023). “On the one hand, it’s pretty funny. On the other hand, I’m furious”: Exploring the experiences of young men who have had nude images disseminated against their will. Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine & Kvalem, Ingela Lundin (2023). Young victims’ understandings of the utility, accessibility and success of different strategies for coping with non-consensual intimate image dissemination. Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine & Kvalem, Ingela Lundin (2021). De usynlige ofrene for nakenbildespredning. Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine & Kvalem, Ingela Lundin (2021). Adolescent sexting: The importance of relationship context to its associations with risk-factors. Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine (2020). Nakenbildedeling blant ungdom i Norge - Forekomst og personfaktorer. Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine (2019). Slutshaming 2.0. Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine & Kvalem, Ingela Lundin (2018). Ikke si til ungdommen: «Ikke send nakenbilder». Full text in Research Archive
• Staksrud, Elisabeth; Elvestad, Eiri; Farstad, Ida Engan; Bhroin, Niamh Ní; Nygård, Stine & Rasmussen, Ingvill [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). EU Kids Online 2026: Norsk hovedrapport. Universitetet i Oslo, institutt for medier og kommunikasjon. Full text in Research Archive
• Staksrud, Elisabeth; Bhroin, Niamh Ní; Rasmussen, Ingvill; Farstad, Ida Engan; Frydenlund, Jonas Højgaard & Kalin, Vilde Sannerud [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2026). Norske barns bruk og forståelse av generativ KI: EU Kids Online 2026. Universitetet i Oslo, institutt for medier og kommunikasjon. doi: https:/www.hf.uio.no/imk/forskning/senter/barn-unge-medier/eu-kids-online/euko-v-norske-barns-bruk-og-forstaelse-av-genki.pdf. Full text in Research Archive
• Staksrud, Elisabeth; Nygård, Stine; Farstad, Ida Engan & Inal, Gülbin Sengul (2026). Norske barns bruk av sosiale medier: EU Kids Online 2026. Universitetet i Oslo, institutt for medier og kommunikasjon. Full text in Research Archive
• Slatleim, Silje Agnete; Helseth, Hannah & Nygård, Stine (2025). "Han virker jo egentlig som en snill fyr": En diskurspsykologisk analyse av unges samtaler om seksuell vold i nære relasjoner. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Bakgrunn: Seksuell vold i nære relasjoner anses som en av de mest alvorlige formene for vold mot kvinner, og utgjør et globalt helse- og velferdsproblem. Forskning viser at seksuell vold i nære relasjoner ofte starter i ung alder, noe som gjør unges forståelser for ansvar, samtykke og grenser særlig relevante. Denne studien undersøker hvordan norsk ungdom i fellesskap forhandler mening om seksuell vold i nære relasjoner, med vekt på skyld, ansvar og kjønnede forventninger. Metode: Denne masteroppgaven inngår som del av NKVTS sitt prosjekt «Nesten innafor», og benytter innhentet datamateriale fra prosjektet. I analysearbeidet trekkes det frem utsagn fra fem fokusgruppeintervjuer med norsk ungdom i alderen 16–20 år. Analysen følger en diskurspsykologisk tilnærming, med vekt på fortolkende repertoarer, ideologiske dilemmaer og subjektposisjoner, samt utvalgte diskursive virkemidler. Resultater: Tre diskurser ble identifisert: (1) Diskursen om «snille gutter», der personlighet, relasjon og intensjon brukes for å forsvare og bagatellisere handlingen, (2) Ambivalent ansvar, der skyld og ansvar fordeles gjennom henvisning til misforståelser, rus og manglende tydelighet, og (3) Kjønnede forventninger som forklaringsramme, der kjønnede forventninger spiller inn for hvordan deltakerne fremstiller karakterene og forhandler ansvar. Diskusjon: Funnene indikerer at norsk ungdom bruker forskjellige diskursive ressurser for å håndtere ubehag og forhandle ansvar, skyld og samtykke i fellesskap. Analysen viser videre at slike uttrykk ikke nødvendigvis reflekterer uvitenhet, men fungerer som strategier for å balansere mellom moralske og sosiale hensyn. Ambivalens trer frem som en gjennomgående diskursiv ressurs, mens rus og relasjon ser ut til å fungere som rammer som både kan skjerpe og svekke ansvar. Samlet sett indikerer resultatene at åpen dialog om temaet kan bidra til refleksjon, nyansering og økt bevissthet om grenser og ansvar blant norsk ungdom.

• Evje, Jacob; Nysæter, Maren Kristin; Ivanova, Anna; Nygård, Stine; Lock, Lennart & Fischer, Nantje (2025). Skeives helse- søkende atferd: En kunnskapsoppsummering av behov, barrierer og erfaringer i møte med helsetjenesten. CENSE – Norsk forskningssenter for seksuell helse. ISSN 9788256930005. Full text in Research Archive
• Nygård, Stine; Kvalem, Ingela Lundin; Frøyland, Lars Roar & Træen, Bente (2025). Sketching a socio-ecological model of nonconsensual intimate image sharing and its harms: A study of victims, perpetrators, and bystanders. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Alongside the increasing accessibility of smartphones, nonconsensual sharing of intimate images (NCSII) has become a pressing social problem, annually affecting around five percent of Norwegian adolescents. To support the identification of promising strategies for preventing NCSII and mitigating its harmful outcomes, this thesis seeks to advance current understanding of the driving forces of intimate image dissemination. Recognizing the relevance of all three parties inherently involved in the violation, the thesis adopts a tripartite approach addressing knowledge gaps concerning victims (Paper I), perpetrators (Paper II), and bystanders (Paper III) of NCSII. Specifically, drawing on interviews with 20 young Norwegians, Paper I explores lived experiences of NCSII victimization. Taking inspiration from appraisal theory, we sought to elucidate how variations in the psychological outcomes described by participants were narratively linked to subjective evaluations of the threats, losses, and harms posed by the NCSII incidents. Furthermore, looking for patterns of meaning across interviews, we aimed to explore how these appraisals in turn may have been shaped by the situational, personal, and sociocultural conditions of participants. Using reflexive thematic analysis, we found that participants tended to describe their experiences of NCSII as involving multiple layers of victimization—namely being (1) robbed of bodily autonomy, (2) stripped of privacy, (3) subjected to public scrutiny, and (4) trapped in a state of uncertainty. Disentangling different appraisals of each violation, we found that participants’ evaluations appeared to be shaped by their gender, self-image, and background, as well as the nature of their relationship with the perpetrator, the perceived scope of the image dissemination, and how bystanders responded to the incident. Despite this complexity, we found that participants tended to emphasize their fears of, and experiences with, facing negative reactions from other people as particularly distressing, underscoring the crucial role of bystanders in the harms of NCSII incidents. In Paper II, we turn our attention to perpetrators, with an aim to identify and distill extant knowledge about the psychosocial mechanisms of NCSII. In particular, we focused on research concerning perpetrator motives and characteristics, as well as the social dynamics of NCSII incidents. Using a mixed methods synthesis approach, we carried out a systematic literature search for peer-reviewed studies that resulted in the identification of 10,324 unique records. Following screening and full-text evaluation, we included 68 articles, of which 55 reported quantitative and 13 reported qualitative studies. Overall, our review revealed inconsistent findings regarding the psychosocial characteristics of NCSII perpetrators. There were, however, two notable exceptions. First, while analyses of the relationship with gender indicated that being male was not a robust predictor of perpetration, no studies found that girls or women are more likely to be perpetrators than boys or men. Second, a significant positive association was consistently observed between NCSII perpetration and victimization, as well as other intimate image-sharing practices. Regarding motives, quantitative studies revealed some gendered patterns. Yet, in general, they found that perpetrators commonly reported amusement, showing off, belonging, rewards, and support as their reasons for sharing images, highlighting the social nature of NCSII perpetration. Complementing these findings, qualitative studies emphasized that NCSII often serves as a form of homosocial bonding, framed within a broader social context of hegemonic masculinity, female sexual objectification, and misogyny. As the findings of both previous papers underscore the importance of bystanders, Paper III seeks to further elucidate their responses to NCSII incidents. More specifically, taking inspiration from the participant role approach to school bullying, we sought to develop a measure of bystander role orientations. Based on an initial conceptualization comprising eight hypothetical dimensions, we devised a list of 63 candidate items. Following expert feedback, a cognitive interview, and pilot analyses, the item pool was refined to 44 items. The dimensionality, internal consistency, measurement invariance, and validity of the instrument was then assessed using data from 814 adolescents (ages 16-20 yeas). Using one half of the sample, the item pool was analyzed using exploratory factor analysis. After comparing different factor solutions, we retained a 16-item four-dimensional model deemed to reflect “insider,” “moralist,” “objector,” and “supporter” bystander responses. This model was then tested on the other half of the sample using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which demonstrated acceptable fit and outperformed alternative models. Subsequent analyses with the full sample supported the scale’s internal consistency, measurement invariance, and validity. Notably, our validity analyses indicated that bystander role orientations may be linked to gender, sexual orientation, prior NCSII experiences, empathy, dark personality traits, and victim-blaming attitudes. Drawing on insights from the above studies, I develop a socio-ecological model of the causes and consequences of NCSII, elucidating driving forces at individual, interpersonal, community, and societal levels of influence. In summary, the model suggests that NCSII primarily transpires as a social activity, that is shaped by and reinforces cultural forces such as hegemonic masculinity, female sexual objectification, sexual morality, and, in some cases, misogyny. Importantly, these conditions also amplify the harms of victimization, in the sense that they seem to foster worries about the social implications of having an intimate image disseminated, and may trigger acts of secondary victimization, including sexual harassment, bullying, and social exclusion. In light of this, developing primary interventions that promote critical thinking about cultural conceptions of gender and sexuality, while also cultivating skills for victim-supportive bystander intervention, may be a promising prevention strategy.

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