Ingrid Lossius Falkum

• Vicente, Agustín & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2026). Polysemy. In Nesi, Hilary (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Elsevier. ISSN 9780443222863. p. 186–191. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-323-95504-1.00376-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 14 Volume Set is the most authoritative, comprehensive and international reference work of its kind. Ground-breaking in its sheer scope – the 2nd edition had almost 3,000 chapters – no other linguistics reference work matches it for sheer broadness of coverage. Over the years it has been a much-loved and invaluable resource for researchers, academics, students and professionals in linguistics, anthropology, education, psychology, language acquisition and pathology, cognitive science, sociology and media/cultural studies. Led by a brand new and outstanding international editorial team, the 3rd edition will be thoroughly modernized to address the considerable growth and development in this field since the previous edition published in 2005. Existing chapters will be revised and updated, obsolete material removed and approximately 300 brand-new chapters will be commissioned to cover newer areas of research such as machine learning and natural language processing. Significant multimedia such as high-quality figures, audio files (highlighting differences in accent and dialects within languages) will be available to complement the text content, and chapters will follow a consistent chapter template in order to provide a logical reading experience for the user. The end-result will be an outstanding and market-leading reference work: modern, fully up to date, easy to navigate via its electronic platform, and logistically and consistently structured. Once again it will be the perfect resource for the modern-day language scholar.

• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Köder, Franziska (2026). The development of irony and epistemic vigilance. Pragmatics & Cognition. ISSN 0929-0907. 33(1), p. 98–98. doi: 10.1075/pc.24045.fal. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Understanding irony requires epistemic vigilance towards both the content and source of communication. We conducted two experiments to investigate whether children’s early epistemic vigilance abilities aid in detecting verbal irony. The first experiment focused on children’s vigilance towards utterance content, hypothesizing that utterances whose explicit (or literal) content is more inappropriate in the context would be easier to recognize as ironic. The second experiment examined children’s vigilance towards the source of the utterances, hypothesizing that children would find ironic (but accurate) informants more trustworthy than inaccurate ones. Both tasks proved challenging for 3- to 7-year-olds, providing no direct evidence of irony understanding. While adults performed as predicted in the first experiment, they did not trust ironic (but accurate) informants, suggesting that the trustworthiness paradigm may not suit the complexity of verbal irony, where the speaker is both dismissive and correct. Our results contribute to a better understanding of the role of epistemic vigilance in irony development.

• Iversen, Rebecca Kvisler & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2026). Parodic irony comprehension. Pragmatics & Cognition. ISSN 0929-0907. 33(1), p. 188–188. doi: 10.1075/pc.24041.ive. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Studies find that irony comprehension emerges around the ages of 6–7, aligning with second-order theory of mind (ToM) abilities. This study follows up on previous research suggesting that children younger than this age might be to some extent sensitive to irony uttered with a parodic tone of voice. Using picture selection and eye gaze measures, 4–7-year-old children were tested on a parodic irony comprehension task. We also investigated the proposed connection between second-order ToM abilities and parodic irony comprehension. Given that parodic irony has an affinity with pretense we also explored how pretend play skills influenced comprehension. Results corroborate existing evidence that children only reliably pass the irony task by age 6, and that second-order ToM abilities contribute to irony comprehension but only in 6–7-year-olds. Pretend play also positively correlates with comprehension scores, suggesting that this aspect of cognitive and social development might contribute positively to children’s irony understanding.

• Martín-González, Isabel; Schroeder, Kristen Frances; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius; Castroviejo, Elena & Vicente, Agustín (2025). Novel metaphor processing in young autistic children. Language Development Research. 5(2), p. 28–67. doi: 10.34842/IM-G. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this study is to explore possible differences between autistic and neurotypical (NT) children in novel metaphor comprehension. Much of the recent literature has related metaphor comprehension difficulties that autistic individuals exhibit to general linguistic abilities. In our design, we carefully pair-matched young autistic children (3.13 to 12.25 years of age) toNT controls (3.69 to 9.04 years of age) on verbal mental age and tested their metaphor interpretation abilities with a picture selection paradigm combined with eye tracking measures. We predicted differences in performance in both types of measures, although we foresaw autistic participants performing above chance in the picture selection task. However, results did not show a difference between groups in the picture selection task, which would favor accounts that relate metaphor interpretation to linguistic abilities in autistic population. Interestingly, the eye tracking observations revealed differences between groups concerning gaze movements in the region corresponding to the processing of the metaphoric vehicle. Such differences replicate those found in previous studies with similar designs, such as Vulchanova et al.’s (2019). On the other hand, the evidence presented and discussed in the paper does not suggest either impairment or delay with respect to metaphor processing. Rather, the evidence only suggests differences. While the source of such processing differences is still unknown, the results of the current study cast some doubts the idea that the main factor in metaphor processing in the autistic population is their structural language level.

• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). Decoupling literalist behavior from children’s early metaphor comprehension abilities. Language Development Research. 5(2), p. 130–171. doi: 10.34842/LDR2025-819. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Children’s literalist responses to metaphor comprehension tasks are often taken to indicate deficient metaphor comprehension. We aimed to decouple this assumed (literalist) performance–(metaphor) competence link and investigate whether children’s observed literalism is best explained by an early difficulty with metaphor. We assessed 3- to 7-year-olds’ metaphor comprehension abilities using different novel functional, attributional, and psychological metaphors in a between-subjects design. We found that when not provided with literal options, children could derive metaphorical interpretations successfully. This was further supported by longer reaction times for metaphorical over literal interpretations. However, when literal options were available, even adults predominantly chose them over metaphorical interpretations. These findings challenge the view that children’s literalism stems solely from difficulty with metaphor and urge researchers to more clearly distinguish studies assessing sensitivity to metaphorical meaning from those investigating the ability to prioritize a metaphorical interpretation over a literal one.

• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Iversen, Rebecca Kvisler; Ira, Noveck, & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). The social dimension of mindreading: developmental evidence for the role of social categorization during utterance interpretation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Biological Sciences. ISSN 0962-8436. 380(1932). doi: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0493. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Work in developmental pragmatics has shown that even though infants display refined mindreading abilities, older children struggle to understand language phenomena that rely on mindreading. This apparent mismatch might be partially explained by considering children’s growing sensitivity to social categories such as their interlocutor’s age. Based on recent work in philosophy of mind, we investigated how social categorization relates to children’s developing mindreading abilities during language comprehension. We tested the hypothesis that social-category-based reasoning follows a similar developmental trajectory to that typically described for children’s mindreading skills. In a picture-selection task, Norwegian participants (ages 3–9 years, N = 119) made decisions regarding a speaker’s (child or adult) preferences by choosing between images showing stereotypically child-coded and adult-coded items. Young children preferentially selected the child-coded image regardless of the speaker’s age, while older children selected the stereotypically adult-coded image when they heard the adult speaker. Additionally, we found no evidence that participants’ performance in the picture-selection task was causally predicted by their scores on a standard false-belief task. We interpret these results as suggesting that the use of social categorization skills during utterance interpretation describes a similar developmental trajectory to that typically described for mindreading abilities, but is likely independent from false-belief reasoning. We argue that future studies in developmental pragmatics should consider social category differences between participants and speakers when drawing conclusions about children’s mindreading abilities and how these are reflected in their interpretation of verbal utterances. This article is part of the theme issue ‘At the heart of human communication: new views on the complex relationship between pragmatics and Theory of Mind’.

• Berg, Margareta; Pilán, Ildikó; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Lison, Pierre (2025). Pragmatic Reasoning for Irony Detection With Large Language Models in English and Norwegian - SEMDIAL. SemDial Proceedings. p. 204–209. doi: https:/www.semdial.org/anthology/Z25-Berg_semdial_4421.pdf. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study investigates the ‘pragmatic abilities’ of large language models (LLMs) – both standard and reasoning-optimized – across two languages (English and Norwegian). Based on an existing experimental study on children’s irony comprehension, we found that LLMs largely identified irony, but performance was poorer in Norwegian due to translation challenges.

• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Noveck, Ira A. & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Straight enough: Deriving imprecise interpretations of maximum standard absolute adjectives. Glossa Psycholinguistics. 3(1). doi: 10.5070/G60111411. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  While maximum standard absolute adjectives (such as straight) typically have a precise meaning (e.g., ‘perfectly straight’), they are also regularly used imprecisely (e.g., to mean ‘straight enough’). The current study investigates how contextual expectations of precision and a visual referent’s conceptual distance from an ideal maximum standard influence the processing effort of precise and imprecise interpretations of these adjectives. In three experiments, we showed native speakers of English images depicting objects that could be referred to precisely or imprecisely via an absolute adjective and asked them to select the image that best matched the written sentence (Experiments 1 and 2) or to read sentences containing maximum standard absolute adjectives (Experiment 3). Experiment 1 presented no discourse context, and participants accepted, on average, only a small degree of imprecision; and when they did, they took longer, relative to cases in which the same adjectives were used precisely, which is in line with existing empirical findings. Experiment 2 contrasted two kinds of discourse contexts (raising high or low expectations of precision) before the presentation of the test sentences. When expectations of precision were high, participants tolerated only a small degree of imprecision, and when they did, it came at a cost, as in Experiment 1. When expectations of precision were low, much larger degrees of imprecision were tolerated but, critically, participants were still, overall, faster to reach precise, relative to imprecise, interpretations in supporting contexts, suggesting that accessing the precise meaning is less effortful. Experiment 3 supported these findings by showing how the cost of understanding imprecision is also present in a self-paced reading task. Our results lend support to the view that maximum standards are part of the encoded meaning of these adjectives.

• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Köder, Franziska Maria (2024). Investigating Irony Comprehension in Children: Methods, Challenges, and Ways Forward. In Banasik-Jemielniak, Natalia; Kałowski, Piotr & Zajaczkowska, Maria (Ed.), Studying Verbal Irony and Sarcasm: Methodological Perspectives from Communication Studies and Beyond. Palgrave Macmillan. ISSN 9783031571718. p. 145–173. Full text in Research Archive
• Martín-González, Isabel; Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Castroviejo, Elena; Schroeder, Kristen Frances; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Vicente, Agustín (2024). That kid is a grasshopper! Metaphor development from 3 to 9 years of age. Journal of Child Language. ISSN 0305-0009. doi: 10.1017/S0305000924000187. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Two major trends on children’s skills to comprehend metaphors have governed the literature on the subject: the literal stage hypothesis vs. the early birds hypothesis (Falkum, 2022). We aim to contribute to this debate by testing children’s capability to comprehend novel metaphors (‘X is a Y’) in Spanish with a child-friendly, picture selection task, while also tracking their gaze. Further, given recent findings on the development of metonymy comprehension suggesting a U-shaped developmental curve for this phenomenon (Köder & Falkum, 2020), we aimed to determine the shape of the developmental trajectory of novel metaphor comprehension, and to explore how both types of data (picture selection and gaze behavior) relate to each other. Our results suggest a linear developmental trajectory with 6-year-olds significantly succeeding in picture selection and consistently looking at the metaphorical target even after question onset.

• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Suppression of literal meaning in single and extended metaphors. Frontiers in Psychology. 14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1135129. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Within Relevance Theory, it has been suggested that extended metaphors might be processed differently relative to single metaphoric uses. While single metaphors are hypothesized to be understood via the creation of an ad hoc concept, extended metaphors have been claimed to require a switch to a secondary processing mode, which gives greater prominence to the literal meaning. Initial experimental evidence has supported a distinction by showing differences in reading times between single and extended metaphors. However, beyond potential differences in comprehension speed, Robyn Carston’s ‘lingering of the literal’ account seems to predict qualitative differences in the interpretative mechanisms involved. In the present work, we test the hypothesis that during processing of extended metaphors, the mechanisms of enhancement and suppression of activation levels of literal-related features operate differently relative to single metaphors. We base our work on a study by Paula Rubio-Fernández, which showed that processing single metaphors involves suppressing features related exclusively to the literal meaning of the metaphoric vehicle after 1000 milliseconds of encountering the metaphor. Our goal was to investigate whether suppression is also involved in the comprehension of extended metaphors, or whether the ‘lingering of the literal’ leads to continued activation of literal-related features, as we take Carston’s account to predict. We replicate existing results, in as much as we find that activation levels of literal-related features are reduced after 1000 milliseconds. Critically, we also show that the pattern of suppression does not hold for extended metaphors, for which literal-related features remain activated after 1000 milliseconds. We see our results as providing support for Carston’s view that extended metaphor processing involves a prominent role of literal meaning, contributing towards explicating the links between theoretical predictions within Relevance Theory and online sentence processing.

• Helganger, Line Sjøtun & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Intonational production as a window into children’s early pragmatic competence: The case of the Norwegian polarity focus and two jo particles. Frontiers in Psychology. 14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116842. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The use of the Norwegian intonation pattern Polarity Focus highlights the polarity of a contextually given thought and enables the speaker to signal whether she believes it to be a true or false description of some state of affairs. In this study, we investigate whether preschool children can produce this intonation pattern and what their productions reveal about the development of their early pragmatic abilities. We also explore their use of Polarity Focus in combination with two particles encoded by the linguistic form jo: a sentence-initial response particle, and a sentence-internal pragmatic particle. We used a semi-structured elicitation task consisting of four test conditions of increasing complexity to shed light on the developmental trajectory of the mastery of Polarity Focus. Our results show that already from the age of 2 children are proficient users of this intonation pattern, which occurs in three out of four conditions for this age group. As expected, only 4- and 5-year-olds produced Polarity Focus in the most complex test condition that required the attribution of a false belief. We further found production of sentence-initial response particle jo by all age groups, both in combination with Polarity Focus and alone. Production of the sentence-internal pragmatic particle jo, felicitously co-occurring with Polarity Focus, emerges around age 3. This study presents the first experimental evidence of Norwegian children’s mastery of intonation as a communicative device in language production and their use of the two jo particles. We show how intonational production can be used as a window into children’s early pragmatic competence: The mastery of the production of Polarity Focus can be seen as an early linguistic manifestation of the cognitive abilities for the attribution of thoughts and epistemic vigilance towards propositional content.

• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). The development of non-literal uses of language: Sense conventions and pragmatic competence. Journal of Pragmatics. ISSN 0378-2166. 188, p. 97–107. doi: 10.1016/j.pragma.2021.12.002. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A growing body of developmental evidence suggests that the cognitive abilities that enable the expression and comprehension of communicative intentions – so-called pragmatic abilities – which underlie language use and understanding, develop early. However, a puzzling feature of pragmatic development is children's difficulties with non-literal uses of language (e.g., ‘I love you so much I could eat you up!’). I outline a research program that aims to provide input to a novel theoretical account of pragmatic development that resolves this developmental puzzle. Rather than investigating different types of non-literal language use in isolation, we should adopt a global perspective on children's pragmatic difficulties. On the basis of experimental evidence from children's comprehension of metonymy and irony, I hypothesise that children's growing sensitivity to sense conventions impedes their pragmatic reasoning with non-literal uses during the preschool years. According to this hypothesis, children's ‘literalism’ does not result from poor pragmatic abilities, but arises because attending to conventions – and to sense conventions in particular - serves an important function at a particular stage of language and social learning. The aim is to open a new direction for empirical research into the development of non-literal uses of language, and pragmatic development more generally.

• Bowerman, Josephine; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Pouscoulous, Nausicaa (2021). 'The moustache' returns: referential metonymy acquisition in adult learners of English as an additional language (EAL). Language and Cognition. ISSN 1866-9808. p. 254–290. doi: 10.1017/langcog.2021.4. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  abstract Referential metonymy, e.g. ‘ the moustache (= man with a moustache) sits down first’, appears early in L1 acquisition (Falkum, Recasens & Clark, 2017). Yet how does it emerge in pragmatically mature but linguistically developing adult L2 learners? We used one comprehension and two production tasks, based on Falkum and colleagues (2017), to investigate metonymy abilities in 34 Japanese adult learners of English as an additional language (EAL) and a control group of 31 native English speakers. We also examined how time constraints and exposure to examples of referential metonymy affected production. In the comprehension task, both EAL-learner and native-speaker participants chose metonymic readings at above chance levels. In both production tasks, all participants produced innovative metonyms. Additionally, the findings indicate that, in L2, exposure to examples dramatically increases metonymy production, while time pressure decreases it. The results suggest that participants can both comprehend and produce novel metonyms in L2, with a possible explicitness vs. production costs trade-off.

• Vicente, Agustín & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2021). Accounting for the preference for literal meanings in autism spectrum conditions. Mind & Language. ISSN 0268-1064. p. 1–22. doi: 10.1111/mila.12371. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Pragmatic difficulties are considered a hallmark of autism spectrum conditions (ASC), but remain poorly understood. We discuss and evaluate existing hypotheses regarding the literalism of ASC individuals, that is, their tendency for literal interpretations of non-literal communicative intentions. We present evidence that reveals a developmental stage at which neurotypical children also have a tendency for literalism and suggest an explanation for such behaviour that links it to other behavioural, rule-following, patterns typical of that age. We discuss evidence showing that strict adherence to rules is also widespread in ASC, and suggest that literalism might be linked to such rule-following behaviour.

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• Borthen, Kaja; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius; Allott, Nicholas Elwyn & Berthelin, Signe Rix (2025). Kommunikasjon, ass! Innføringsbok i pragmatikk. Fagbokforlaget. ISBN 9788245028522. 445 p. Full text in Research Archive

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• Holmen, Frida Johanne; Idsøe, Thormod; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Næss, Kari-Anne Bottegård (2026). Inference-Making Among 4-5-Year-Old First- and Second-Language Learners in Norwegian Early Childhood Education and Care. Full text in Research Archive
• Salimifar, Saeedeh & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2026). Do We hold Large Language Models Accountable? Full text in Research Archive
• Reksnes, Vilde Regine Stugaard; Allott, Nicholas Elwyn & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2026). Investigating expectations about informatively in human-LLM interactions. Full text in Research Archive
• Bollingmo, Helle & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2026). Does the way in which information is presented influence people's trust in AI agents? Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2026). Investigating the development of irony comprehension: Some challenges and ways forward. Full text in Research Archive
• Bucher, Taina; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius; Berg, Margareta; Findlay, Jamie Yates; Kempton, Alexander Moltubakk & Müller, Lilly Pijnenburg [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Mellom ytring og fortelling: Kommunikasjon med og om KI. doi: https:/www.uio.no/om/aktuelt/universitetsplassen/domus-bibliotheca/arrangementer/2026/kommunikasjon-med-om-KI. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2026). Epistemic vigilance and the development of pragmatic interpretation. Full text in Research Archive
• Allott, Nicholas Elwyn & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). LLMs: Illusions of meaningfulness. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). Hvordan kommuniserer vi med maskiner? Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Allott, Nicholas Elwyn (2025). How do we communicate with chatbots? Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Allott, Nicholas Elwyn (2025). Hvordan kommuniserer vi med språkmodeller? Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Mathisen, Emma Krane; Noveck, Ira & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). The development of understanding maximum standard absolute adjectives: evidence for pragmatic tolerance. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). Emojis at the semantic-pragmatic interface. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). Children (chatbots) and non-literal uses of language. Full text in Research Archive
• Allott, Nicholas Elwyn & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). LLMs, intentions, illusions and bullshit. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Some people are deluded about LLMs in that they think they are sentient, and have mental states like beliefs and intentions, but most of us probably aren’t and don’t. But this raises questions about how we understand their ‘utterances’ and how we learn from them, since leading accounts of utterance interpretation are intentionalist (Grice 1957; Green 2007). We suggest that people are subject to an illusion that LLMs text productions are meaningful. A recent paper (Hicks et al., 2024) has suggested that the ‘utterances’ of LLMs are bullshit in Harry Frankfurt’s sense since the LLMs are indifferent to their truth value. On a Frankfurtian process view, a machine with no intentions cannot be a bullshitter, for two reasons that we explain, while on a product view (Cohen 2002) only some LLM productions are bullshit. We argue that our illusion account has the benefits of Hicks et al’s bullshit view while avoiding these difficulties.

• Allott, Nicholas Elwyn & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). LLMs: Intentions, illusion and bullshit. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2025). The development of lexical modulation: pragmatics, polysemy and sense conventions. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). LLMs and pragmatic development. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Allott, Nicholas Elwyn (2024). How do we understand machines that talk to us? Communication with Large Language Models. Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth; Ganea, Patricia & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). "Towers can't wear clothes": What happens when children's reality and literal biases clash? Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth; Ganea, Patricia & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). "Towers can't wear clothes": What happens when children's reality and literal biases clash? Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Johansen, Henriette & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). How are words stored in the mental lexicon? Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Johansen, Henriette & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). The representation of maximum standard absolute adjectives. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Why do pragmatically competence children act like 'literal listeners' in certain contexts? Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Investigating the development of irony comprehension: Challenges and ways forward. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). How do we communicate with large language models? Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Lexical modulation in development. Full text in Research Archive
• Iversen, Rebecca Kvisler & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Parodic Irony Understanding in autistic children. Full text in Research Archive
• Iversen, Rebecca Kvisler & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Irony comprehension in neurotypical children. Full text in Research Archive
• Schroeder, Kristen Frances; Martín, Isabel; Castroviejo, Elena; Vicente, Agustin & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Processing of novel metonymic utterances among autistic and neurotypical children. Full text in Research Archive
• Schroeder, Kristen Frances & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Formalizing an autistic language processing style: a proposal in progress. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun; Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Köder, Franziska Maria & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Children's sensitivity to intonational cues in ambiguity resolution: The Norwegian additive focus particle også ('also'). Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). The pragmatics of count-mass polysemy. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun; Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Köder, Franziska Maria & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2024). Children's sensitivity to intonational cues in ambiguity resolution. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Metonymy and the development of non-literal uses of language. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Polysemy, approximation and development. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Lison, Pierre (2023). Er prateroboten ChatGPT en klok samtale­partner eller papegøye? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  https://forskersonen.no/chatgpt-kronikk-kunstig-intelligens/er-prateroboten-chatgpt-en-klok-samtalepartner-eller-papegoye/2157206

• Solheim, Randi; Gulla, Jon Atle; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Sonstad, Klaus (2023). Hva gjør kunstig intelligens med språket vårt? Språksnakk - live fra Trøndelag teater. [Radio]. NRK P2, nettradio og podcast. Full text in Research Archive
• Iversen, Rebecca Kvisler; Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). They are wellies, not shoes: Does children's sensitivity to language norms get weaker with age? Full text in Research Archive
• Iversen, Rebecca Kvisler; Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). They are wellies, not shoes: Does children's sensitivity to language norms get weaker with age? Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Mathisen, Emma Krane; Noveck, Ira A. & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). When children are more pragmatic than adults. Full text in Research Archive
• Huntington-Rainey, Biu & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Class innovation and sense conventions at the syntax/pragmatics interface. Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). The processing cost of imprecision: A pupillometry study. Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Mathisen, Emma Krane; Noveck, Ira A. & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). When children are more pragmatic than adults: the development of imprecision. Full text in Research Archive
• Martin-González, Isabel; Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Schroeder, Kristen Frances; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius; Castroviejo, Elena & Vicente, Agustín (2023). Autistic children's novel metaphor comprehension under reduced uncertainty. Full text in Research Archive
• Martin-González, Isabel; Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Castroviejo, Elena; Schroeder, Kristen Frances; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Vicente, Agustín (2023). That child is a grasshopper (because he jumps a lot): children's development of novel metaphor comprehension. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius; Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Torgersen, Henrik Anker Tumert & WIlson, Elspeth (2023). Acquisition of manner implicatures and sense of conventionality in children. Full text in Research Archive
• Allott, Nicholas Elwyn & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Pragmatic development, sense conventions and the puzzle of non-literal uses. Full text in Research Archive
• Riegler, Michael; Lison, Pierre & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Kunstig intelligens-modeller er ikke miniatyr­versjoner av den menneskelige hjernen. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Endelig på førstelaget. [Journal]. Apollon. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Children’s metarepresentational abilities: Evidence from intonational production and the Norwegian response particle jo. Full text in Research Archive
• Kartushina, Natalia; Onnis, Luca; Rosslund, Audun; Singh, Arun Prakash; White, Michelle Jennifer & Theimann, Ane [Show all 14 contributors for this article] (2023). Babies and kids - how do they acquire and learn multiple lects? Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Explaining the development of non-literal uses of language. Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Mathisen, Emma Krane; Noveck, Ira & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). The development of imprecision. Full text in Research Archive
• Prendergast, Claire & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Preliminary Empirical Data from a Sequential Study on Young Children’s Pragmatic Development. Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Understanding the relationship between children's literalist behavior and metaphor comprehension development. Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Does children's early literalist behavior stem from difficulties with metaphor comprehension? Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Uncoupling children's literal bias from their metaphor comprehension abilities. Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth; Ganea, Patricia & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Do children interpret metaphors literally because they are fantastical thinkers? Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). Unpacking the literal bias in children’s metaphor comprehension development. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2023). The puzzle of the production-comprehension asymmetry in children's acquisition of the pragmatics of intonation. Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Exploring the literal bias in children's metaphor comprehension development. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun; Köder, Franziska Maria & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). The effect of intonation on children's comprehension of the Norwegian focus particle også ('also'): Evidence from eye-tracking and picture selection. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Children's production of Polarity Focus and the response particle jo. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Accessing children's pragmatic competence through intonational production. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Accessing children's pragmatic competence through intonational production: The case of 'Polarity Focus'. Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Exploring the literal bias in children's metaphor comprehension development. Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Exploring the literal bias in children's metaphor comprehension development. Full text in Research Archive
• Neff, Mary Beth & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Exploring the literal bias in children's metaphor comprehension development. Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). The literal does linger: Suppression of literal meaning works differently for single and extended metaphors. Full text in Research Archive
• Köder, Franziska Maria; Mascaro, Olivier & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). The development of irony and epistemic vigilance. Full text in Research Archive
• Noveck, Ira A. & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). What is the cost of imprecision? Full text in Research Archive
• Huntington-Rainey, Biu & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Investigating agentive derivation in infants: a pragmatic perspective. Full text in Research Archive
• Ronderos, Camilo Rodriguez; Noveck, Ira A. & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). When children are more pragmatics than adults: the development of understanding imprecision. Full text in Research Archive
• Köder, Franziska Maria; Mascaro, Olivier & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). The development of irony comprehension and epistemic vigilance. Full text in Research Archive
• Prendergast, Claire & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Losing the thread: How 3- and 5-year-olds predict the outcome of a story when non-literal language is used to update events. Full text in Research Archive
• Allott, Nicholas Elwyn & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2022). Why do 5-year-olds have more difficulty with figurative use than younger children? Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Danbolt, Bjørn Kristian (2021). Korona: «Vi er bekymret for konsekvensene for unge forskere: at de skal bli utbrente, deprimerte og få redusert livskvalitet.». 1, p. 44–44. Full text in Research Archive
• Helganger, Line Sjøtun & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2021). Accessing children's pragmatic competence through intonational production. Full text in Research Archive
• Schroeder, Kristen Frances; Martin, Isabel & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2021). The helmet joins the team: Assessing novel metonymy comprehension in Autism Spectrum Conditions in a game-like task. Full text in Research Archive
• Falkum, Ingrid Lossius & Iversen, Rebecca Kvisler (2021). Sense conventions, pragmatics, and the development of non-literal uses of language. Full text in Research Archive
• Köder, Franziska Maria & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2021). Irony and perspective-taking in children: The roles of norm violations and tone of voice. Full text in Research Archive
• Iversen, Rebecca Kvisler & Falkum, Ingrid Lossius (2021). Verbal irony comprehension in TD and ASD children: The impact of perspective-taking skills and language norms. Full text in Research Archive
• Ingeborgrud, Lina; Falkum, Ingrid Lossius; Busterud, Guro; Bratland-Sanda, Solfrid; Tjønndal, Anne & Stein, Jonas (2021). Karriere etter korona? En studie av hvordan koronapandemien har påvirket yngre forskere i Norge. Akademiet for yngre forskere. Full text in Research Archive

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